(Constitutions of the people’s democratic republics)
N. FARBEROV
The Second World War brought about a change in the correlation of forces
between capitalism and Socialism in favour of Socialism. This is seen in the
strengthening of the Soviet Union, growth of its economic and defence power,
strengthening of the moral, political unity of the Soviet people, increasing the
international authority of the Soviet State.
The changed correlation of forces between the capitalist and Socialist
systems is also shown in the dropping off of a number of countries of Central
and South Eastern Europe from the imperialist system.
The peoples of Central and South-Eastern Europe who have come out of
the clutches of imperialism were able to solve independently the question of
the character of their States and to create a new political organisation,
namely, a State of People’s Democracy, because the Soviet Army which had
entered their territory drove away the German Fascists and prevented Anglo-
American intervention which was being prepared for. Without the Soviet
Union and its Army the peoples of these countries would not have escaped
the lot of Greece where the Anglo-American interventionists and native
reaction foisted on the people by means of violence and terror a monarcho-
Fascist regime and bloody civil war. The victories of the Soviet Army which
brought about the complete military defeat of Fascism and drove away the
German Fascist occupiers, were the decisive conditions for establishment of
the order of the People's Democracy in the countries of Central and South-
Eastern Europe.
The overthrow of the old order in these countries resulted in the removal
of the bourgeoisie and the landlords from power and the transfer of it into the
hands of the working people with the working class at their head. The
authority and the influence of the working class among the masses of the
people of these countries have increased beyond all measure because it
showed the greatest heroism, consistency and irreconcilability in the fight
against Fascism, in the fight for the overthrow of the power of the exploiting
classes and for establishing the power of the toiling people!
The toiling people, led by the Communist Parties have achieved success in
1the fight against Fascism and in the consolidation of People’s Democracy. The
Communist Parties ensured the leading role of the working class during the
course of the national liberation struggle and establishment of people's
power. By their self-denying struggle for the interests of the toiling people the
Communist Parties won the tremendous affection of the masses of the people.
The Communist Parties showed themselves as the most active force of the
peoples of these countries in their struggle against the German Fascists, the
most consistent and determined fighters against the exploiters, against
Fascism and reaction, for national sovereignty of their States. The
Communist Parties are the initiators and carriers of the democratic changes
in the countries of People’s Democracy. All the blows at reaction were dealt at
the initiative and with the most active participation of the Communist Party.
The people’s democratic power carried out profound changes which have
transformed the social and State structure of the countries which have
dropped off the capitalist system. The people’s power immediately after its
emergence set about carrying through the agrarian reform, with the object of
satisfying the hopes and requirements of the broad masses of the people by
abolishing landlordism and giving land to the landless and poor peasants.
The agrarian reform was carried out on the principle: “Land belongs to
those who till it". There are differences as regards the time and tempo of
carrying out of the agrarian reform as well as regards the maximum land
that can be privately owned, in individual countries of People’s Democracy,
but one thing is common to all these countries that the agrarian reform has
brought about the liquidation of the land ownership by the landlords and of
the feudal remnants and handed over land and agricultural implements to
the peasants who had no land or had very little.
Another most important measure carried out m the countries of People's
Democracy is nationalisation of banks, of the big and medium size industry
and confiscation of the property belonging to the war criminals and to the
persons who collaborated with the German Fascist usurpers.
Nationalisation of industry and banks, differing in each one of the
countries of People’s Democracy from the aspect of the time within which and
tempo at which it was carried out, everywhere as a rule covers all the
branches off industry and undermines the economic power of the bourgeoisie.
In consequence of the nationalisation of industry and banks the toiling
classes in the State of People’s Democracy occupy the decisive position in
economy: mines, sources of energy, transport, communication, big and
medium size establishments and banks. As a result of the nationalisation of
industry the State (Socialist) sector has been brought into existence in these
countries which plays a leading role in the whole of the national economy.
The State sector in industry of the countries of People's Democracy at the
present time constitutes from 80 to 95 per cent of the entire industrial
production.
Nationalisation of the industry and banks as well as agrarian reform took
place in conditions of stubborn resistance by the exploiting classes, in
conditions of sharp class struggle. The success of these changes was
guaranteed by the fact that those changes corresponded to the profoundly
vital interest of the broad toiling masses and therefore met with their full
support.
The new people’s power had to face the task of organising the new State
apparatus. Without this, State power could not become the real power of the
people. “By the State apparatus”, V. I. Lenin pointed out, “is meant first of all
the permanent army, police and the officers” (Collected Works, Vol. 21, page
256). It was necessary to organise in place of the old army headed by the
reactionary generals and officers, a new genuinely people’s army, to liquidate
the police which had used violence against the toiling people, to change the
old bureaucracy which served the interests of the bourgeois-landlord clique.
It was necessary to create a new State apparatus capable of defending the
interests of the working class and all the toiling people.
Removal of the old and creation of the new State apparatus took place in a
situation in which the hostile elements put up overt and covert resistance.
However, the firm and consistent policy of the working class and its party,
support of the new power by the people, vigilance and activity of the toiling
people upset the calculations of reaction about bringing back the pre-war,
anti-popular power by preserving the old State apparatus. Creation of the
new State apparatus was one of the big victories of the People’s Democracies,
which ensured consolidation of the people’s power.
An important condition for consolidating the people’s power was the
creation of a new army. The partisan units form the core of these armies. The
new commanding cadres were selected mainly from the leaders of the
partisan detachments and other anti-Fascists who had distinguished
themselves. An apparatus was created for the political education of the
soldiers. The reactionary generals and officers were removed from the army.
The old apparatus of police and gendarmerie was abolished and on the
initiative of the masses of the people, the people’s militia was created for.
maintaining the freedom and the rights of the people. The most important
cadres of the people’s militia were recruited from the anti-Fascist patriots.
As a result of the democratic changes which have been carried out, a
number of countries of People’s Democracy are marching on the road to
Socialism.
The profound changes in the social and political order of the countries of
People’s Democracy require the adoption of new constitutions. New
constitutions were adopted in Albania (March 1946), Bulgaria (December
1947), Rumania (April 1948), and Czechoslovakia (May 1948). A law about
the structure and competence of the higher organs of the Polish Republic and
a Declaration of civil rights and freedom was established in Poland in
February 1947 and a law about the State structure was made in Hungary in
February 1946.
In working out the draft of the constitution of the countries of People’s
Democracy representatives of all progressive social organisations took part.
The People’s Republics avail themselves of the positive experience of the
discussion of the draft of the Stalin Constitution of the USSR by the entire
people. The draft constitutions of these countries were published for
discussion by the entire people. In this discussion broad masses of the
working people participated. In this especially was manifested the real
democratic character of the power in the people’s republics.
The constitutions of these people’s republics set the basic principles of the
new social and State system, organisation and functions of the organs of
State power, of State administration and justice, as well as formulate the
fundamental rights and duties of the citizen. They characterise the people’s
republic as the State of a new type in which power lies in the hands of the
toiling people with the working class at their head. The State power in the
countries of People’s Democracy is designed to serve the purpose of
suppressing the resistance of the exploiting classes who have been
overthrown and of all the attempts to restore the capitalist order and rule of
the bourgeoisie. It is designed to serve the purpose of defending the country
from the foreign imperialists, to serve the purpose of building Socialist
economy.
In the people's republics the strategic sections of national economy are in
the hands of the State. But the economic roots of capitalism have not still
been liquidated, the capitalist elements still remain and continue to grow; by
making use of the support of international reaction, they strive to restore the
old capitalist forms.
The people’s democratic State is the direct outcome of the historic victory
of the Soviet Union over German Fascism. In a situation of military defeat of
the Fascist aggressors’ State, in conditions of a rapid sharpening of the
general crisis of capitalism, of the tremendous increase of the might of the
Soviet Union and alongside the close collaboration between the U.S.S.R. and
the people’s democratic States, an opportunity has opened up for the
countries of People’s Democracy to carry out the transition from capitalism to
Socialism by means of the people’s democratic system.
Thus People’s Democracy is a special historical form of the revolutionary
power of the masses of the people with the working class at their head, which
accomplishes the transition to Socialism. The regime of People’s Democracy
successfully carries out the functions of the dictatorship of the proletariat:
suppression of the resistance of the exploiting classes which have been
overthrown, drawing in of the toiling masses for the task of Socialist
construction through the leadership of these masses by the working class
through its State and building up of Socialist society.
In the process of stabilisation and development of the States of People's
Democracy, the Communist Parties have become the core of power, have
become the ruling parties.
Up to 1948 alongside the Communist Parties in the countries of People’s
Democracy, with the exception of Albania, Social Democratic parties also
existed. In the struggle for the development of People’s Democracy the unity
of the working class was consolidated. The merger in 1948 of the Communist
and Social Democratic Parties into one party pf the working class on the
basis of Marxism-Leninism is an expression of the strengthening of the
political, ideological and organisational unity of the working class. The
throwing out of the right-wing reactionary elements from the Social
Democratic Parties was the condition precedent to their unification.
Marxism-Leninism constitutes the Ideological basis for the unification of
the working-class party. The Parties are built up on the principle of
democratic centralism. All these parties, though they are called differently,
the Communist Party, Workers’ Party, the Party of the Working People, are
the parties of a now type, the parties of the working class, In their
programmes and organisational structure they start from the Leninist
Stalinist teachings about the Party.
The unification of the working-class parties signifies the consolidation of
the forces of the working class as it puts an end to the division in its ranks
and wields its power. Moreover there is no doubt that the unification of the
working class parties signifies a further consolidation of the leading role of
the working class In the States of People’s Democracy.
The new constitutions have been adopted and are being carried out in
practice under the leadership of the Communist Parties in the countries of
People's Democracy.
The constitutions of the people's republic first of all contain the chapters
and articles devoted to the social organisation of the countries of People’s
Democracy. The starting point of the constitutions of the countries of People's
Democracy is that there are In these countries at the present time three most
Important economic systems: Socialist (State and Co-operative), private
capitalist, and that based on small commodity production. Accordingly the
constitutions set down that the means of production are: (1) Social property,
that, is the property of the State; (2) The property of the people’s co-operative
organisations; (3) Property of the Individual. Thus the economy in the
countries of People’s Democracy is composed of more than one system.
The State property in these countries embraces the most Important means
of production, thanks to which it constitutes the main basis of the
development of people’s economy, the material basis of the economic
prosperity and independence of the people's republic.
The State property is a higher form of socialist property, the basis of the
socialist system—a lending one, but, as yet not a predominant one in the
entire people’s economy of the republics. The big private capital has no place
in the people’s republics. Capitalist monopolies (trusts, cartels and concerns)
are prohibited by the constitutions. Private property within limits is
permitted by the law, the right of inheritance and private economic initiative
are allowed. However, it is pointed out in the constitutions that none can
make use of the right of private property to the detriment of the society. Thus
the constitutions openly proclaim the priority of social and popular well-
being. The constitutions of the people’s republics reject the principle of the
inviolability of private property, which is characteristic of the bourgeois
constitution. They set down that the means of production owned privately
can become the property of the State, if the interest of the people demands
this. In that case the owner may be given compensation in a proportion fixed
by the Law.
The constitutions of the people’s republics affirmed the basic principles of
the agrarian reform: '‘Land belongs to those who till it.” Large-scale private
land ownership has been abolished, the amount of land which can be owned
by individual persons has been fixed by law. The State of People’s Democracy
gives grants to the labour peasant economies by the organisation of machine
and tractor stations, granting long term credits and sowing materials. It
helps the development of co-operation in all its forms and especially the
development of labour co-operative agricultural forms. They are the first to
be given help and granted concessions.
In Bulgaria, according to the law of land reform, priority, in allotment of
land, is given to those peasants who have combined in labour co-operative
agricultural farms. These co-operative farms have been exempted for three
years from all direct taxes and receive credit from the co-operative banks at
concession rates. As a result of these and other measures there are today in
one-fourth of all the villages of Bulgaria agricultural productive co-
operatives. Altogether in the country there are estimated to be more than
1,000 such co-operatives with a membership of 76,000, cultivating 300,000
hectares of land. Every peasant who joins the labour agricultural co-
operative, while giving away to the cooperative the whole of his arable land,
cattle and agricultural implements, at the same time preserves his
proprietary rights in the land. The agricultural productive co-operative in the
countries of People’s Democracy is the primary form of the productive joint
farms of the peasants and of the collective cultivation of the land. For further
development of productive co-operation the Government of Bulgaria grants
big credits; more than 70 state machine tractor stations have been created in
the country.
The new principles of the socio-economic organisation of the
countries of People's Democracy create conditions for planning the
economic development of. these countries. The State of People’s
Democracy directs economic life through a single economic plan, relying
upon the state and co-operative sector of the economy and exercising
general control over the private sector. The transfer of the most
important means of production and banks to social ownership is the
precondition of planning. Thanks to this, the State possesses the most
important levers of influencing, in a planned way, the entire national
economy. The State having at its disposal the most important means of
production, guides the economic and cultural life of the countries of
People’s Democracy ensuring the growth of productive forces and
strengthening of the defensive capacity of these countries, safeguarding
and strengthening their national sovereignty.
The countries of People’s Democracy already in 1946-1947 embarked
upon long-term planning. In Poland and Hungary 3-year plans were
adopted while in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia, 2-year national
economic plans were adopted. In Hungary the 3-year plan was to be
completed by December 31, 1948, i.e., within 2 years and 5 months. In
Czechoslovakia the 2-year plan has been completed as a result of which
the industrial production has exceeded the pre-war level by 10 per cent
at the end of 1948 and the standard of living of the population also has
risen. In 1948 a 5-year plan of development of the national economy has
been adopted in Czechoslovakia and a 2-year plan in Albania. In
Bulgaria a 5-year plan has been prepared. It was discussed at the 5th
Congress of the Bulgarian Workers’ Party (Communist). In Poland a
draft of a 6-year plan has been worked out. It was examined at the
unification Congress of the Workers’ Party of Poland.
The conditions for the successful realisation of the national economic
plans in the countries of People’s Democracy are the organisation and
solidarity of the working class, leadership of the Communist Party, the
policy of restricting and displacing private capital, steady growth and
expansion of the Socialist form of economy. The most important role in
the realisation of the national economic plan is played by the increased
labour activity of the masses of the people who look upon the
realisation of the plan as the cause of the entire people. The plans are
fulfilled in active collaboration with the trade unions of /the workers
and employees, co-operatives and other organisation of the toiling
people. Paragraph 164 of the Constitution of Czechoslovakia reads:
“Everyone who has been assigned any task must while executing and
carrying out the one economic plan, fulfil it conscientiously and
economically, as far as it is possible.”
The transfer of political power into the hands of the lolling people and of
the most Important means of production into State property c h a n g e t h e
character of labour in these countries. Labour In the people's republics is
recognized as the most Important socio-economic factor, a matter of honour
for and duty of every able-bodied citizen. The constitutions of the people's
republics ratified the universal juridical and moral obligation to work and the
right to Just payment for labour In accordance with its quantity and quality.
The new principles of socio-economic structure are already giving
their beneficial result, The State sector of industry has become the
leading one, the co-operatives are developing with State support, long-
term planning (two year, three year, five year, etc.) ensures the high
tempo of economic development arid the rise in the material and
cultural level of the peoples, while the great and noble object of
building Socialism unites the toiling people in a common enthusiasm
expressed in the extensively growing labour .emulation and shock-
work.
The radical changes in this sphere of economy have led to changes in
the class structure and in the correlation of class forces. As a result of
the nationalisation of big industries and banks the big capitalist in the
town has been liquidated, but the small capitalist still remains in
industry and trade. The fulfilment of the task of complete liquidation of
the capitalist elements in the towns is related to the further
development and consolidation of State industry, to the development of
State and co-operative trade.
The agrarian reform has led to the liquidation of the class of
landlords and has given land to the toiling peasantry, but it has not put
an end to the class differentiation in the village and the growth of
kulaks. The nationalisation of land in people's republics has still not
been carried out. "We however think", said Com. Dimitrov, "that
gradually by drawing the poorest and middle peasant into the labour
co-operative agricultural farms, by increasing the number of Machine-
Tractor stations, by prohibiting the renting of land, by restricting and
prohibiting the purchase and sale of land, we at the same time have
created conditions so that the question of nationalisation of land will be
solved in practice; moreover, the whole land will be given over to the toiling
peasant for permanent use." As regards the kulaks—the most numerous
exploiting class—at present a policy of restricting and displacing them is
being carried out. Liquidation of kulaks as a class can be carried out, as the
experience of the USSR tells us, only on the basis of mass collectivisation of
the peasant farms. The task of mass collectivisation of agriculture, i.e., its
transfer into large-scale Socialist agriculture, however, demands a large
amount of preparatory work as regards the restriction and displacement of
the capitalist elements in the village, strengthening of the alliance between
the working class and the toiling peasantry under the leadership of the
working class, as regards the development of Socialist industry which
produces the machines for large-scale agricultural production, as regards
educating the peasantry and explaining to it the advantages of the collective
economy,
The most important classes in the countries of People's Democracy are the
working class and the tolling peasantry—poor and middle peasants who are
the allies of the working class, with the leading role of the working class in
this alliance. The alliance of the working class with the peasantry is
cemented by the joint struggle against German Fascism and its allies inside
these countries, by the common labour in laying the foundations of the new
social and State system, in consolidating people's power, At present this
alliance has been directed against the capitalist elements of the town and the
village; its task is to carry on the struggle against the capitalist elements, to
increase the productive forces to help the labour peasant farms and in
proportion to the development of conditions in the respective countries, to
develop the productive cooperative organisation of the peasant farms.
The leading force of the alliance between the workers and the peasantry is
the working class. The present working class of the people’s republics is not a
class exploited and suppressed by capitalism. The working class jointly with
the toiling people now owns the most important means of production. It
carries out the State leadership of the society. Further strengthening of the
leading role of the working class with the Communist Party at its head in all
spheres of the State, socio-political, economic and cultural life, is one of the
most important tasks of People’s Democracy.
The more the power of the toiling people develops and deepens democracy
and the Socialist changes, the more the class struggle sharpens. The
Communist Parties of the countries of People’s Democracy foster
vigilance and a fighting readiness among the toiling masses, by arming
them to overcome difficulties in building Socialism.
“So long as the economic roots of capitalist exploitation are not completely
destroyed", said Com. Beirut at the unification Congress of the workers’
parties of Poland, “the capitalist elements will strive their utmost to restore
the whole system of capitalist economy. Therefore the working class must
carry on an irreconcilable struggle with the capitalist elements, must strive
to liquidate completely all the forms and economic sources of capitalist
exploitation.”
The exploiting elements deprived of political power and losing their
economic position have recourse to sabotage, espionage, wrecking, terrorist
acts, diversions, and try to destroy the people’s power and the democratic
achievements of the toiling people.
The remnants of the internal reaction in the countries of People’s
Democracy work at the direct bidding of the Anglo-American imperialists.
The trials of Manius in Rumania, of the groups of Petkov and Lulchev in
Bulgaria and of other reactionaries in the countries of People’s Democracy
have irrefutably shown that the threads of anti-state conspiracies lead to the
Anglo-American imperialists, who support and inspire these remnants of
internal reaction.
The new socio-economic structure of the countries of People's Democracy is
the material basis of the wide democratic rights and freedom of the toiling
peoples. The constitutions of the countries of People’s Democracy grant such
rights and liberties to the toiling peoples as they never had before and do not
have in the capitalist countries even today.
Among the rights of the citizens the socio-economic rights, that is, the
rights, in which the toiling masses are above all interested, occupy the first
place. By the constitutions of the countries of People’s Democracy the citizens
enjoy the right to work, to have rest, to have help in old age and sickness.
The right to work is guaranteed by the democratic character of the State
power, by the existence of a considerable and ever growing Socialist sector in
the economy and by the corresponding planning of the national economy.
In the conditions of the countries of Eastern Europe, where before the war
an extremely low percentage of literacy existed, the right to education
granted to the working people acquires a special significance. The
Constitution of Albania (Article 28) states: "... The State guarantees to all
strata of the population the opportunity to attend schools and other
cultural institutions.... The schools are conducted by the State.... Primary
education is compulsory and free. Schools are independent of the
church.” In Albania where before the war 85 per cent of the population
was illiterate, today there are more than 450 primary schools, 16
middle schools, and a wide network of courses for the liquidation of
illiteracy is in operation.
In Bulgaria ever since the establishment of the people’s power
considerable successes have been achieved in the sphere of public education.
907 new primary schools have been opened and the number of middle schools
has doubled compared to before the war. In the Republic over 200 vocational
schools, 69 primary, and 38 middle schools for adult workers and employees
have been started. In prewar Bulgaria there was only one University; today
there are four. 15 hundred students receive stipends from the State.
One of the characteristic features of People’s Democracy is the solution of
the national problem in the spirit of real democracy and equal rights of the
people. The constitutions set down the equal rights of the citizens regardless
of their nationality and race. Direct or indirect restrictions on the rights, or
conversely granting of privileges on account of nationality, as well as
propagation of national hatred, are punishable by law. The national
minorities have the right to unrestricted development of their national
culture and free use of their mother tongue.
In Rumania where the national minorities were looked upon before as
“inferior”, and were deprived of elementary citizen’s rights, national
inequality and oppression have now been ended for good. Transylvanian
Hungarians have the same rights as the Rumanians. About 2,000 primary,
250 middle and many higher schools have been opened for Hungarians. Over
30 newspapers and journals are being published in the Hungarian language.
There are also schools for other national minorities (Serbs, Greeks,
Armenians, Germans, etc.), in these schools the medium of education is their
own mother tongue.
In Bulgaria the national minorities (Turks, Macedonians, etc.) also have
the right to receive education in their own mother tongue, while the people’s
power makes this practicable by opening schools for these nationalities and
training cadres for these schools, In Albania in regions with Greek
population, schools for the Greek people have been started and also a
newspaper in the Greek language is being published.
The principles of equal rights of all nationalities find expression also in
the organisation and formation of State organs in the countries of People's
Democracy.
According to the Constitution of Czechoslovakia the legislative and
executive power on the territory of Slovakia is exercised by the Slovakian
national organ—Slovakian National Council and Collegium of
Representatives. Being the expression of the national interests of Slovakian
people they are called upon to guarantee equal rights of the Slovaks and
Czechs within the system of the one State. The representatives of Slovakia
are included in the National Assembly and the Government of
Czechoslovakia.
In other countries of People’s Democracy where there is no need to create
special national organs of power, representation of national minorities in the
general State organs is ensured. Thus in Rumania there are 30 Hungarian
Deputies in the National Assembly. In the National Assembly of Bulgaria
there are representatives of the Macedonian and Turkish population. In
Albania where the Greek national minority forms altogether only 2.4 per cent
of the population, there are 3 Greek Deputies out of a total of 84 Deputies in
the National Assembly.
For the first time in the history of these States the toiling people possess
the political freedoms: Freedom of speech, of the press, of assembly, of
meetings and of demonstrations, right of combination and organisation. The .
citizens of national republics are guaranteed freedom of conscience and
religion, right to perform religious worship, inviolability of personal residence
and privacy of correspondence.
The constitutions of the countries of People’s Democracy have as a starting
point that all the rights and freedom conferred on the citizens of these States
must help to strengthen the people's democratic regime, the growth of
organisation and political self-activity of the masses of the people. The
utilisation of the rights conferred by the constitutions for anti-democratic
purposes is recognised as a crime and punishable by law. They can never
have freedom who are enemies of the people’s power, who fight against the
people’s democratic order.
The constitutions of the countries of People’s Democracy besides granting
wide democratic rights and freedom also impose obligations upon the citizens;
to abide by the Constitution and observe the laws, to work according to their
capacities, to defend the fatherland and conscientiously perform public
duties.
The constitutions of people’s republics are based on real democratic
foundations and real sovereignty of the people.
The entire power in the people’s republics comes from the people and
belongs to the people. The people exercise their power through the
representative organs elected by them, beginning with the local and ending
with the highest State organs.
The electoral right ensures real free expression of the will of the people
and at the same time real representation of the people in the organs of State
power. The right to elect and be elected to the organs of State power is
enjoyed by all adult citizens regardless of their sex, nationality, race, religion,
education and place of residence.
In Bulgaria and Albania all citizens who have reached the age of 18 have
the right to vote and are eligible for election. In Czechoslovakia all citizens
who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and all those who have
reached the age of 21 are eligible for election. In Rumania all the citizens who
have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and those who have reached
the age of 23 are eligible for election. In Hungary, according to the
provisional electoral law, all the citizens who have reached the age of 20 have
the right to vote and are eligible for election. In Poland, according to the law
of elections to the legislative Seim all citizens who have reached the age of 21
have the right to vote while all those who have reached the age of 25 are
eligible for election.
In the countries of People’s Democracy the elections are equal, direct and
by secret ballot. Political parties, social organisations as well as groups of
voters have the right to nominate candidates. Political parties can nominate
candidates independently as well as jointly in an electoral bloc. Broad masses
of the people participate in nominating the candidate. The people’s deputies
are obliged in their work, to act according to the mandate of their voters, to
report to them on their work and can be recalled before the expiry of their
term. Thus a constant control by the broad masses of the people over the
work of the state organs is provided for, which constitutes one of the most
important conditions of a real democracy.
The real democratic character of the electoral right in the countries of
People’s Democracy is clearly evident not only from the constitutional
provisions which determine it, but also from its application in actual practice.
General elections were held in Bulgaria in 1945 and 1946, in Albania in 1945,
in Rumania and Czechoslovakia in 1946 and 1948, in Poland in 1947 and in
Hungary in 1945 and 1947. The general characteristic features of all these
elections were: active participation of the people in the preparations,
organisation and holding of the elections, as well as in the control over the
latter; the really free character of the elections which exclude any kind of
pressure on the voters; participation of almost every working man in the
voting. In the countries of Peoples’ Democracy from 80 to 90 per cent voters
have taken part and in even greater numbers in individual cases in contrast
to the USA where in the 1946 elections to the Congress only 37.5 per cent of
the voters look part in the voting.
The elections in the countries of People's Democracy led to still further
rallying of the working people around the Communist Party, as the ruling
party—the most important directing force of the development of People’s
Democracy.
In contrast to the bourgeois countries where people cannot exercise any
influence on the administration of the State, in the countries of People's
Democracy it is the people who are in power. who exercise their sovereignty
by participating in the administration, in working out and putting into effect
important laws and State measures through various social organisations.
The constitutions of the countries of People’s Democracy provide for
holding a referendum, which was actually held in Poland and Bulgaria.
On June 30, 1946, a referendum was held in Poland on the question of the
principles of the future constitution and of the most important changes in the
State, economic and political structure. Over 90 per cent of the voters took
part in the referendum. The people approved the reforms already carried out,
expressed in favour of the abolition of the senate which was a centre of
reaction in pre-war Poland, and greeted the restoration of the historic
frontiers of Poland passing along the rivers Oder and Neiss.
In Bulgaria the people’s power provided an opportunity to the people to
express by means of referendum their will on the question of the form of the
State administration. In contrast to Greece, where the referendum on the
question of the return of King George, whose hands were stained by fascist
crimes, took place in conditions of a reign of monarchical terror and where
the people had no chance to express freely their will, in Bulgaria the
referendum on September 8, 1946, passed off in conditions of complete
freedom, without any kind of compulsion; out of a total of 4,500,042 voters
4,129,534 or 91.67 per cent took part in the referendum. Out of these
3,832,001 or 92.72 persons voted for a People's Republic.
"Comparing the two countries", said Com. V. M, Molotov, "we see that in
Bulgaria the Republic has been established in such a way as fully
corresponds with the universally recognised principles of democracy, and on
the other hand in Greece the monarchy restored by such methods as have
nothing in common with the honest attitude towards the principles of
democracy" ("Problems of Foreign Policy", Page 180, Russian Edition).
The representative institutions in people’s republics are the higher and
local organs of the State power. The higher organs of the State power in
Bulgaria and Albania are the National Assembly; in Rumania—the great
National Assembly; in Poland—the Seim; in Czechoslovakia and Hungary—
the National Assembly. These are not only legislative organs but also
supreme organs with full powers. All other organs of power and State
administration, all higher officers get their authority from those to whom
they are responsible, to whom they must report and by whom they can be
recalled at any time. The members of the higher representative organs not
only pass laws, but also guarantee the putting of such laws into effect.
The higher representative organs of the countries of People’s Democracy
do not have the so-called Upper Chamber. The Upper Chamber (the senates
in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Rumania), which under the old regime served
as the bulwark of reaction and hampered the carrying out of all in any way
progressive measures, have been liquidated according to the will of the
peoples of these countries as not corresponding to democratic principles.
The Upper (second) Chambers in the bourgeois countries are usually
centres of reaction and hampered the march forward. "As we know," said
Com. Stalin, “the second chamber is not infrequently granted more rights
than the first chamber, and, moreover, as a rule the second chamber is
constituted undemocratically, its members not infrequently being appointed
from above." (Problems of Leninism, p. 564, Moscow 1947)
Thus in France the second chamber—the Council of the Republic—is
elected indirectly. Moreover, with the object of countering the electoral rights
of the workers, preference is shown to the agricultural districts as compared
with the industrial ones. According to the new electoral law, ratified by the
Government majority in 1948, the old system under which the election to the
pre-war French Senate used to take place is being practically revived: general
voting has been abolished; the right to elect the right to elect the electors,
who in their turn elect the members of the Council of the Republic, is granted
only to the municipal councillors. In Italy the Second Chamber—the Senate—
is elected on the basis of higher qualification and more restricted
electoral rights, than the lower chamber—the Chamber of Deputies.
The-higher representative institutions of the people’s republics are the
only legislative organs. Law making is their exclusive competence.
In the bourgeois countries the legislative initiative belongs to the
government alone. In the countries of People’s Democracy, however, the
legislative initiative belongs in addition to the government also to the
deputies of the higher representative institution, its Presidium and other
organs.
Finally, the important thing is that the citizens of the people’s republics
exercise the real (and not the sham as in bourgeois countries) control over the
activity of the government. In those people’s republics where the institution
of the Collegiate of the government is established (Bulgaria, Albania,
Rumania), the higher representative organs themselves directly form the
governments and have the right to revoke their decisions.
Similarly the local organs of State power (in Bulgaria, Rumania and
Albania—the People’s Soviet, in Czechoslovakia—the People’s, or National
Committee, in Poland the Rada Narodovas) are really representative and
having full power (within the limits of their competence). The local organs of
State power are elected directly by the voters and are responsible to them;
must report to them and can be changed according to their will. They direct
the local economy and cultural constructions, ensure the maintenance of
public order, law and rights of the people, ratify local budget and decide other
local affairs. Administering the affairs of local importance, the local organs of
State power also participate in carrying out the general task on their
territory on the basis of the decisions of the higher organs of State power.
In their work the local organs of State power rely upon the initiative and
activity of the masses and the organisations of the working people. The broad
strata of the working people are drawn into the work of local organs of State
power. Here they pass through the school of administration of State affairs.
For this purpose permanent commissions formed of representatives of the
working people are set up within the Soviets and the Committee; these
commissions give their conclusions on questions placed before them for
examination by the organs of power, show the demands of the population,
verify the work of the establishments and departments, collaborate in
carrying into effect the decisions of the Soviet and the Committee.,
The local organs of State power are responsible to their electors; together
with them they are responsible to the higher organs and must fulfil their
orders. This means that they are organised on the principle of democratic
centralism and double subordination.
The organs of the State power in the countries of People's Democracies are
composed in overwhelming majority of the representatives of the workers,
peasants and labour intelligentsia. Thus the Supreme National Assembly of
Bulgaria, elected on October 27, 1946, is composed of 73 workers, 90
peasants, 3 engineers, 15 cooperative workers and other representatives of
the people. The majority of the deputies of the Supreme National Assembly is
composed of the active participants from the resistance movement. Out of
them 54 persons were sentenced to death by the Fascists during their regime,
17 persons were sentenced to life imprisonment, 23 persons to 15 years
imprisonment and 107 persons to smaller terms of imprisonment.
The Supreme National Assembly of Rumania which was elected on March
28, 1948, is composed of 177 workers, 66 peasants and representatives of the
intelligentsia. It would be interesting to place these figures side by side with
the social composition of the pre-war Rumanian Parliament. In the House of
Deputies elected in 1928, out of 347 seats, 261 belonged to big capitalists and
landlords. There was not a single worker or peasant or artisan in the whole
House of the Deputies. Thus the article in the pre-war Rumanian
Constitution, which hypocritically stated: “The people are the source of all
power”, appears today in practice,
The head of the State in the people’s republic is either a collegiate organ,
elected by the supreme representative institution of the people (Presidium of
the National Assembly in Bulgaria and Albania, Presidium of the Supreme
National Assembly in Rumania), or the president who is also elected by the
supreme representative institution (in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary).
The collegiate head of the State in the people’s republics is elected from
among the Deputies for the same term as the representative institution
itself, whereas in bourgeois countries the president as a rule is not a
deputy of the representative institution and is elected for a longer
term.
In the people's republics where there is no collegiate head of the State, the
President is elected also by the supreme representative institution of the
people, and not by a special election, as in certain bourgeois countries, where
this leads to the creation of a strong presidential power which is utilised by
the reactionary elements for the fascisation of the country (for instance, in
the USA).
In Poland and Czechoslovakia where the post of the President exists there
is also a collegiate organ (the supreme Soviet in Poland, Presidium of the
National Assembly in Czechoslovakia), together with whom the President
decides the most important matters.
The collegiate head of the State in the people’s republic in all his activities
is responsible to the supreme representative institution, elected by the
people. As is pointed out by Com. Stalin the institution of the collegiate head
of the State “is the most democratic, and safeguards the countries against
undesirable contingencies” (Problems of Leninism, Page 564-65, Moscow
1947).
The supreme executive and administrative organs of State power of the
people’s republics are the governments—the Councils of Ministers. In
people’s republics which have a collegiate head of the State (Bulgaria,
Rumania and Albania), the Government is formed by the supreme
representative institutions. When this institution is not in session the
changes in the composition of the government can be made by its Presidium,
to be subsequently submitted to the supreme organ of power for ratification.
Where the governments are appointed by the President (as in Poland,
Czechoslovakia and Hungary) the composition and programme of the
government must be approved by the people’s representatives.
The government in all people’s republics is responsible to the supreme
representative institution and has to make reports to the latter, while in
those countries where the institution of the collegiate head of the State is
established, it is responsible to it.
In bourgeois parliamentary States the governments are formally
considered to be responsible to the parliament but in practice they are not
only independent of the parliament but they predominate over them and
push the parliament into the background, Even the basic function of the
bourgeois parliament—legislation—is to a considerable extent usurped
by tbc government.
In the people's republics the governments direct the whole State
administration. They direct and coordinate the activity of the ministers,
commissions, committees and other institutions, including the organs which
manage the economic, socio-cultural affairs and the problems of planning. For
ensuring the regular control over the State departments the organs of State
control have been created.
The leading role in the governments of the people’s republics belong to the
Communist Parties. In the majority of the people’s republics the
representatives of the Communist Party occupy the post of Prince Ministers
and most important ministerial posts. The Governments of the people's
republics as a rule include in their composition the representatives of the
Parties who have participated in the joint organisation of all the people—
national patriotic front.
The Constitutions of the people’s republics provide for the democratic
principles of organisation and activity of the organs of justice: the judges are
elected and conduct trials with the participation of the people's assessors. The
judges are independent and are subordinate only to the law. The judicial
proceedings take place on the basis of collective principle and are conducted
in public unless otherwise provided by law. The accused is guaranteed the
right to defence in the court as well as the right to acquaint himself with the
material of the case through interpreters and to use his own language or
avail himself of the services of an interpreter. A central organisation of the
procurators is organised which guarantees the observance of the
revolutionary democratic laws.
In the principle of the national sovereignty of the people’s republics, in the
basic principles of organisation and functioning of their state organ, in the
system of rights and duties of the citizens, established by the constitutions of
the countries of People’s Democracy, one cannot but see the beneficial
influence of the Stalin Constitution.
The experience of the State structure of the USSR, the first Socialist State
in the world, expressed in the Stalin Constitution, is utilised by the countries
of People’s Democracy. This testifies to the words of Com. Stalin that the
Soviet institution is a programme of action for the peoples of other
countries.
The Stalin Constitution of the USSR is the constitution of victorious
Socialism; it consolidates its basic achievements. The starting point of it is
the liquidation of exploitation and the exploiting classes in our country and
the fact that the Soviet Society is composed of two friendly classes—the
workers and the peasants.
The Constitutions of the people’s republics reflect the achievements of
the working people which make it possible to lay the foundation of Socialism
in these countries; they are based on the fact that the society is composed of
not only the toiling classes who are in power, but that there are also
exploiting classes in relation to whom at a given stage, a consistent policy of
restricting and displacing is being carried out.
The path along which the countries of People’s Democracy are marching
and approaching Socialism is fundamentally the path traversed by the USSR;
through Socialist industrialisation and collectivisation, through class struggle
and liquidation of the exploiting classes. The weapon of the toiling classes in
building Socialism in the countries of People's Democracy is the People’s
Democratic State which constitutes the power of the working people with the
leading role of the working class led by the Communist Party.
“In accordance with Marxist-Leninist principles”, said G. M. Dimitrov in
his concluding remarks at the 5th Congress of the Bulgarian Communist
Party, “the Soviet regime and the people’s-democratic regime are the two
forms of one and the same power, namely the power of the working class in
alliance with the toiling people of the town and the village. Both of these
regimes are the two forms of the proletarian dictatorship”.
The path of the countries of People’s Democracy to Socialism has certain
special features within the framework of general laws. These special features
are determined above all by the fact that the People’s Democratic States-in
their struggle for building Socialism rely upon the mighty support of the
country of the Soviets, the land of Socialism;
The struggle for the triumph of Socialism in every one of the countries of
People's Democracy can successfully develop only under the slogan of
internationalism, in fighting friendship with the USSR and all the countries
of People's Democracy. The departure from internationalism and going over
to the path of bourgeois nationalism, like the treacherous activity of the
national group of Tito in Yugoslavia testifies, inevitably leads to the breaking
away from the camp of democracy and Socialism to the subordination to
imperialism.
People’s Democracy is strong because of its loyalty to the principles of
internationalism. Nationalism is incompatible with People’s Democracy.
The peoples /of the countries of People’s Democracy possess in the USSR,
the loyal defender of their sovereignty, a powerful bulwark of their economic
prosperity, a disinterested friend and helper in the cause of Socialist
construction.
(Translated from BOLSHEVIK, No. 24, December 30), 1948,
by Com. A. B. Khardikar)